Shuji Funo： Never Ending Tokyo Projects： Catastrophe? or Rebirth?： Towards the Age of Community Design， ：International IIAS workshop： MegaーUrbanization in Asia： Directors of Urban Change in a Comparative Perspective， International Institute for Asian Studies (IIAS)， Leiden University， Leiden， 12ー14 December 2002

International IIAS workshop : Mega-Urbanization in Asia:: Directors of Urban Change in a Comparative Perspective
Freek Colombijn: Peter J.M. Nas
Leiden, 12-14 December 2002

International Institute for Asian Studies (IIAS),

Leiden University, The Netherlands

Never Ending Tokyo Projects:

Catastrophe? or Rebirth?: Towards the Age of Community Design

Dr. Shuji Funo（Kyoto University）

1 Introduction

I am Shuji Funo from School of Architecture of Faculty of Engineering, Kyoto University, Japan.  

My family name is easy to remember. Who knows(Funo’s)? 　・・・　Nobody knows is the answer.

   My major subjects are Housing and Regional（Urban Area） Planning. Beside the academic work, I wrote over 10 books on architectural design and theory and am thought to be a kind of critic on architectural design in Japan.

I have been deeply involved in the fieldwork on kampungs  in Surabaya, Indonesia, for these over 20 years with Prof. Johan Silas (ITS Institute Teknologi Surabaya).  He always teaches me a lot about what human settlements are or should be.  I believe kampung is so interesting as a model of urban community.  So I would like to have written an article on Indonesian Mega cities. But Professor Dr. Nas requested me strongly to write on Japanese city.  I am not a suitable person to discuss the problematic on Tokyo, but dare to decide to think about Tokyo this time.  I am worrying about the case of Tokyo is completely different from the cases of the other Asian Mega cities.

2 Outline of paper

My paper is consisted of three parts. Firstly It sums up the basic information on Tokyo mainly in terms of urbanization process.  Secondarily, I am discussing the many urban projects on Tokyo with their backgrounds from the beginning of Meiji Restoration. Thirdly, I would like to discuss the present stage and phase of Tokyo.

Tokyo had become a global city, which give influences to international financial markets in 1980s during which Japan had been grasping hegemony of World Economy.  Tokyo was completely connected to global networks, so the urban issues Tokyo faced were shifted to be in different dimension from other Japanese Cities.

In the mid-1980s, Tokyo reached to a kind of climax or a saturation point in terms of horizontal expansion. So-called “Tokyo Problem” and ‘Tokyo Reform’ were a main topic of those days. Many scholars and critics discussed the issues derived from monopoly of Tokyo and the possibilities of moving capital i.e. Decentralization. It is abnormal that about 1/4 of the total population of Japan live in Metropolitan area of Tokyo.

3 Tokyo Metropolitan Area

Tokyo is consisted of 23-ku (ward), 26 cities, 5 towns and 8 villages and is divided into two major areas, 23 wards area and Tama area. The Tama Area has become urbanized and is merely a bedroom town area for people commuting to the 23-ku areas at present.    But is also blessed with an abundance of natural environmental advantages. Although it is not known well, Tokyo has several islands where about 30,000 persons live. This area possesses a beautiful natural environment abundant with marine resources.

4 The Population of Tokyo

The population of Tokyo Metropolitan Government is up to 12.17 million last year, which is 9.5% of Japan’s total population, the largest population of any of the 47 prefectures. Tokyo’s area, 0.6% of the total area of Japan, is the 3rd smallest of the prefectures. Tokyo is by far the most densely populated prefecture in Japan.

The trend of depopulation has been prevailing since 1967. In 1997, there was a net population increase for the first time in 12 years, and 2000 again showed a net increase.

5 A Brief History of Tokyo

 Tokyo was only a small castle town at the beginning of 17^th century but now is the capital, the largest metropolis in Japan, which has the population of over 12 million.  It is considered that the urbanization of Tokyo followed the orthogenetic process until the end of Edo era because Japan had closed the country from 1641 to 1853, only opening a port of Desima, Nagasaki to the Dutch. Japan had continued to be positioned at the periphery of European World Economy though silver exported through Desima had contributed to the development of European World Economy.  It might be interesting subject to be investigated historically that the population of Tokyo in the mid 18^th century had already reached 1 million, which was competitive to those of European large cities like London, Paris etc.  Tokyo was a huge village-like mega city (huge urban village) in the mid 19^th century.

6 The Unaccomplished Tokyo Projects

The urbanization process of Tokyo from the Meiji restoration (1868) up to today is divided into several stages. Restructuring of Edo to modern capital Tokyo is the first program for the new Meiji government.  Industrialization began in 1880s and Tokyo started to be suffered from urban problems from 1890s. The first urban planning law and building code were legislated in 1919. Tokyo received critical damages by the Great Kanto Earthquake (1923). During wartime (1931-45), the urbanization of Tokyo was interrupted, but became the metropolis of East Asia. Japan expanded its territory to Asian regions constructing several colonial cities in Manchuria, Korean Peninsula and Taiwan (Formosa) where many experimental projects were realized based on the imported modern urban planning technologies.

Despite the greatest damage during the war, the postwar reconstruction of Japanese economy was completed roughly ten years after the end of the war. There were enormous concentrations of population and industries in and around Tokyo, the population of which exceeded over 10 million in early 1960s.

However, Japan’s period of intensive economic growth gave way to a period of low, stable growth with the energy crisis in the 70s. The focus had been considered to be going to shift from outward urban expansion to the fuller development of already urbanized areas. But the bubble economy attacked the whole islands of Japan from the end of 1980s. Nobody could control the activities of speculation. And the bubble economy had gone. The paradigm in terms of urban planning is shifting again. Tokyo is now suffering from the huge debt in the age of bubble economy.

• Anyway I have to cut almost all the detail topics.

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 Two projects are symbolic in this period. One is of Ginza commercial block project, which refashioned the entire Ginza district in red brick. Brick structure was adopted not only for fire protection but also for a showpiece giving a European flavor.  Brick structures, however, were abandoned soon because of a frequent earthquake in Japan.

The other is Hibiya Governmental Offices Concentration projects (1886-87) at Kasumigaseki. Herman Ende and Willhelm Beckman from Germany were invited to plan and design the central district of Tokyo. The project was not implemented by objection James Hooprecht, a civil engineer, who had planned Berlin Plan in 1862, because of financial pressure.  H. Ende abridged the project and only two buildings were constructed on the site, half of which is now Hibiya Park, which is the first western type of public park.

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The first legislation in Japan, Tokyo Shikukaisei Jorei, was enforced in 1888. The greatest attention was given to road construction. The model was Great Reform of Paris by Baron Georges-Eugene Haussman(1809-91). The first “Town Planning Act” was adopted in 1919 together with the first “Municipal Area Building Law” in Japan. The act and building law adopted the zoning system to delineate fire-protection. The concept and method of land readjustment were introduced from Germany.

“New Tokyo” Plan was launched by S. Fukuda, a city architect-engineer in 1918. 　“New Tokyo” Plan individually proposed were only on the paper.

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Ironically speaking, we had the only chance to realize the idea of modern urban planning in the colony. Datong City Plan and Dalian Plan in China are famous Japanese colonial projects. Japanese architects considered the colony as experimental field to realize the idea of modern architecture and modern urban planning. Colonial urban planning recalls us that urban planning with top down process needs the political power of states for realizing the idea. Architects and planners learned a lot from Nazi’s planning idea in this period.

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The Japanese metropolises received the greatest damage during the World War II.   Land readjustment projects were planned in many districts of Tokyo after the war but it took much time to be decided. Much competition related to reconstruction programs were held, but nations ruined economy did not allowed their implementation. 

     A  Capital Region Development Law was enacted in 1956 to replace the Capital Construction Law of 1950.  This Plan was modeled on the Great London Plan by Sir Patrick Abercrombie’s concept for London and was based on the idea of strong controls. Industrial satellite cities were intended to be similar in function to English New Towns, but most of them were built as new industrial developments in the suburbs of exiting cities.  New towns were built one after another in the suburbs, being intended for middle-income level families.      However, it should be noted that the new towns that were created were very different from the self contained New Towns that provided both places of work and housing.

   Kenzo Tange proposed  “Tokyo Plan 1960” following K. Kikutake’s “City on the Sea”(1958) and “Tower City”(1959). “Tokyo Plan 1960” that insisted the linear structure in place of radial system was the project that changed the former policy of city planning. Many architects including K.Kurokawa (“Rurban City”, “Spiral City”), F. Maki (‘Group Form’),…who had belonged Metabolism Groups launched the ideal projects for the future city emulously as well as the Master Architect in the modern age.  A. Isozaki also proposed the project called ‘The City in the Air’.

   The prominent urban projects by star architects were only proposed for two or three years in the beginning 0f 1960s. Realization seems out of their concerns because of their proposal were lacking for procedure and money for implementation. We can say their image of future city was temporarily realized as the formation of the sites for Expo’ 70.  It is a rare case that K. Kikutake’s “City on the Sea”(1958) was realized as “Aqua polis” in 1975.

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   “Town Planning Law” was revised in 1968, when the urban planning system was barely established.

   Japan’s period of intensive economic growth gave way to a period of low, stable growth with the energy crisis. The focus had been considered to be going to shift from outward urban expansion to the fuller development of already urbanized areas.

   Paradigm concerning urban planning and housing shifted from large scale projects to small scale projects, from new construction to urban renewal, from high rise flats to low-middle rise town house, from quantity of dwelling units to quality of life and so on. The idea of ‘B (Bebaungs)-Plan’ was introduced in this period.

  What came after the stable growth period was bubble economy. Nobody could expect the bubble economies attack the whole islands of Japan from the end of 1980s.

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12 The Fundamental Issues of Japanese Urban Planning System

 I would like to summarize the Fundamental Issues of Japanese Urban Planning System in Japan.

We can point out general issues of Japanese urban planning, looking back the history of urban planning of Tokyo.

    a The lack of originality:

We have always been importing the concepts and systems of urban planning from the western countries. We introduced the way of Baron Haussmann’s grand project of Paris in 19th century at the beginning, Nazi’s idea of national land planning during the world war II, the concept of Greater London plan after the world war II, German B-plan in the early 80s, and so on. It is not bad to learn the foreign systems, but it does not necessarily work well in different context.  We need the ideas and methods rooted in realities in Japan.   

    b The absence of subjectivity in urban planning: passiveness of people:

  Who plan and design the city is not clear in Japan. Local government that is controlled by central government cannot decide any matter related urban planning.  In addition, we have not established the systems of people’s participation and advocate planning.

   c The weakness of financial background specialized in urban planning:

     We have not special funds for urban planning. That depends on the budget year by year.  The policy may easily be change by the mayor who also be replaced by election. The unstable planning board is also problematic. The officials in local government move from one board to another board frequently. We need the professionals in urban planning in and by urban planning board. 

   d The immaturity of public sense that limit the private right for urban planning:

     Japan is said to be the freest country as for designing the building. It is because that no close relation between the building code and the urban planning law (block regulations).  Cityscape is getting chaotic though architects who are responsible for the coordination enjoy the freedom.

   e  ‘Scrap and build’ urban process:

   We have been repeating scrap and built process for this half century after the war. Urban planning had neglected the urban historical heritage. The poorness of urban stocks is a big problem for the future.

 13  Post Modern City Tokyo: Tokyo at its Zenith

 I would like to point out the new phase of Tokyo after mid 1980’s, here.

 (1) Supersaturate City: Disappearance of Frontier

   In the mid-1980s, Tokyo reached to a kind of climax or a saturation point in terms of horizontal expansion. So-called “Tokyo Problem” and ‘Tokyo Reform’ were a main topic of those days. Many scholars and critics discussed the issues derived from monopoly of Tokyo and the possibilities of moving capital. It is abnormal that about 1/4 of the total population of Japan live in Metropolitan area of Tokyo.

   However, new frontiers were sought for further development of Tokyo because of affluent money to be invested. The first target was unused public land within the central district and down town. Large real estate company launched many redevelopment projects and many winklers attacked and purchased the downtown area. There were the districts whole building had disappeared.

  The second frontier is the sky. Tokyo still has more space in the air than New York. The Manhattan Project, which renews the CBD, was launched.

  The third frontier is the underground, so called geo front.  The project to create a city with 500,000-population underground of Tokyo was proposed seriously.

   The fourth target was waterfront where the dockyards, factories and son had been located on.    ‘World City Exposition Tokyo’96” planned on waterfront was named ‘Urban Frontier’.

    (2) A Global City: 24 hours city

    Tokyo became one of the global financial centers, which attracts international businessmen in 80s.  The demand of office space for them was one of the reasons that need bubble economy. Tokyo is now completely involved in international networks and active for 24hours.

    Tokyo invited a huge influx of foreign workers she had never experienced before. The registered number of foreign residents reached 327,000 (as of October 1, 2001) and represented 2.5% of the total population that seems less than those of the city in developed countries, but 1.3 times more than the total figure 10 years earlier. 

    (3) Cyber city: Artificial City

     We are losing the opportunity to contact directly with nature in our daily life.  Every space in Tokyo becomes to be artificially controlled by computer.  Aluminum sashes which can airproof the space tightly had been prevailed 100% all over Japan in the 60s, which means all dwelling units are now air-conditioned. So called intelligent office buildings became in fashion in 80s. Domed stadium where indoor climate is freely controlled completely and football game can be played even in storm might be the model of the future city.      

    (4) Virtual City: Temporary City

   Paradigm seems to be shifted again from a huge city to compact city, from flow to stock, from newly build to maintenance………..     However, scrap and build process is still going on in Tokyo which is losing the historical memory of the city. We are living in the image of the city, denying the reality, or in virtual reality.  Tokyo is l a temporary metropolis like a huge site for international exposition.

    (5) The Death of City: The City Completed

    The city might be completed at the critical point it will be saturated. But does it mean a death of the city if it will lose the frontier? The real city is limited physically and cannot be expanded infinitely. The global environmental issues teach us we need the maintenance system of the urban space based on the natural ecology.

     The system of production and consumption of spaces are economically controlled by investment technology.  If we have one possibility to shift the mechanism of producing spaces, the system will be based on eco-system in the region.

14 The Tokyo Plan 2000

15 Lessons from Great Hanshin Earthquake

16  Conclusion

    Nobody control a global city like Tokyo. Nobody knows who are pressing the urban changes of Tokyo. Something invisible which we might say World Capitalist System in a word, guides the directions of transformation of the Japanese capital.

However we can try to list up several directors who have keys to influence the directions of the urban changes of Tokyo. Governors should be basically responsible for the future of the city.  Strong leadership of governor even in case of Mega city like Tokyo is needed for realizing the idea though a giant bureaucratic system regulate the decision making process.  The brains of governor including so-called people of experience also have the possibility to be the directors.  We have moreover various actors as directors such urban planners; architects; road-builders; city administrators; real estate developers; financiers; non-governmental organizations; scholars; and visual, performing and literary artists.

Construction industry including real estate agents had strong influence in making decision of urban projects because it produced over 20% of GDP in the period of bubble economy. But the situation is now drastically changing the basic structure is still preserved in countryside.  The tertiary industries leaded by information technology industry are going to have the power to policymaking and over 70% of population belongs to the tertiary sector.  Governor cannot neglect the citizen’s initiative in terms of urban planning.

I will list the directors or systems to influence the urban changes in Japan in the following. We find no profession is responsible for visualizing the future plan of the city. I myself think the talent of “architect” to draw the spatial system is still needed in any levels of urban planning and design.

• Market

Economic power still seems to be a driving force to change the urban form. But nobody is responsible for the results. Many new office buildings flats are now under construction in the areas on waterfront despite a long recession. The number of high-rise flats newly constructed in 2002 is said to be unprecedented.

  The rumor of  “2003 problems” that many companies will move from the inner city to the waterfront and many old office buildings will be left unoccupied is now spreading. And several companies specialized in conversion of old office buildings to dwelling units were established and are watching for business chances. The production of urban spaces is basically influenced by the speculative activities of real estate agents and investors.

• Housing Industry

      The production of dwelling units is closely related to business fluctuations. 1.9 million units were built in 1973 but the number of units newly built decreased drastically to 1.15 million in 1974 because of oil crisis. In the period of bubble economy, the number rose up to 1.7 million, now down to 1.1 million. This kind of mechanism dominates cityscapes. Central government, therefore, control the number of dwelling units newly constructed every year by reforming a taxation system, for example, reducing of inheritance tax, acquisition tax and transfer tax.

    (c) Subsidy

       The central government has great power to give a subsidy to the local government for implementing the urban projects.  The planning system in Japan is based on top down system where the bureaucrats have the right to make decisions. All local governments, which have only 30% rights of self-governance, should get the budget from central government in carrying any project.

        Decentralization and restructuring are urgent tasks we should realize in every field of policy making.

     (d) Zoning: Building regulations

        Legislation is almost only issue to be discussed in terms of urban planning, especially zoning with height and volume regulation is a cue to control building activities. Japanese Central government has established the special board called “Urban Rebirth” and decided to deregulate building code and urban planning law to stimulate the building activities. Local government can now rezone the areas and decide the special district for restructuring. However, local governments, which are suffering from financial pressure, have no margin to propose the new projects.

      (e) Governor

     Some of governors of 47 prefectures including Tokyo seem to be getting the voice and the initiative to central government.

     Governors and mayors should get the more rights and freedom to manage and plan the city. The main roles of mayors for these years are to get subsidies for constructing public buildings to distribute the money to building and real estate industry, in place of getting votes at the time of election. Now time is changing to self governance mayors have more leaderships. 

(f) Municipal Ordinance

Building regulations are the same all over Japan although the requirements for buildings differ region by region.  Central government in Japan does not want to admit the double standard within one country. Local governments only legislate municipal ordinances under the national laws. We need here again the powerful leadership and will of mayor to implement the unique idea.

    (g) Citizens: Participation

    Citizen’s participation is basically needed in practice. A formal procedure is prepared for people participation, but does not function effectively. It seems that people does not like to participate in the process of urban planning if it does not relate himself.

17  The Roles and Tasks of Town Architects in Japan

●If we have time, I would like to discuss the profession of Town Architect who serve the local communy.